Tackling Displacement Akbar Allahabadi's Islamic Critique of Modernity in the Colonial Subcontinent
Main Article Content
Keywords
Akbar Allāhābādī, Change, Islam, Modernity, Reason, Democracy, Universal
Abstract
Akbar Allahabadi (1846-1921) was an influential Muslim Urdu-Persian poet of colonial India.1 He was born in 1846 in a town near Allahabad as Syed Akbar Hussain, and he belonged to a socially affluent family that had migrated from Iran.2 In keeping with the practices of the time, he learned Arabic and Persian in Allahabad, where his mother had moved in 1855.3 The name of the city then became the surname by which he is known. In 1856, he also enrolled in the Jumna Mission School, though he dropped out before completing his studies in 1859.4 Meanwhile, he managed to learn English, which enabled him to study Western philosophy and ensured that he could, with ease, frequently use English words and idioms in his Urdu poetry. He took up a clerkship in a government office after leaving school5 and, in 1866, passed an exam to become a barrister.6 After two years, in 1868, he became a Tahsildar (sub-district collector), qualifying as a lawyer at the High Court in 1874.7 Finally, in 1880, he became a Sessions Court Judge, a position he would hold until 1903, when he retired due to worsening eye-sight.8 This would also be the height of his professional career, and the title of Khan Bahadur was awarded to him by the British Government for his services in 1895.9 After his retirement he resided in Allahabad until his passing in 1921.10
References
Endnotes
1 Case, Margaret H. The Social and Political Satire of Akbar Allahabadi. Mahfil (1964), 1(4), p. 11; Rajmohan Gandhi says that in the 1900s, Muslims of India were under the influence of three people. One Among them was Akbar Allahabadi, the two others being Shibli Nu’mani and Maulana Azad (Gandhi, Rajmohan. Eight Lives, A study of Hindu-Muslim encounter (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), p. 67).
2 Husain. Iqbal. Akbar Allahabadi and National Politics, Social Scientist (1988), 16(5), p. 29.
3 Ibid
4 Ibid
5 Ibid
6 Case, The Social and Political Satire of Akbar Allahabadi, p. 29.
7 Ibid
8 Ibid
9 Ibid
10 Ibid
11 Faruqi. Shamsur Rahman. Akbar Allahabadi: Nai Tehzibi Siyasat aur Badalte huye Aqdar, (New Delhi: Zakir Hussain Yadgar Khutba, 2002), p. 17.
12 Daryabadi, Abdul Majid. Zikr wa Fikr Akbar Allahabadi (Uttar Pradesh: Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad Memorial Committee, 1951), pp. 19-23.
13 The concept of modernity in Urdu is referred to through numerous words. Although I am unable to provide an exhaustive list since the meaning of the word, at times, also depends upon its usage in the sentence, I will point out some prominent/common words that refer to modernity. Jadidiyat and nayapan mean modernity. Simply Jadid or Naya means modern. Nai roshni, Tehzib or Nai Tehzib (depending upon the context) refer to modern civilisation, while Maghrib or Maghribi tehzib, which literally means West or Western civilisation, also refer to modernity.
14 Allahabadi could also be among the first thinkers in the Muslim world who engaged critically with Western civilisation. The Young Ottomans group that reacted against the modernist Tanzimat reforms was formed in 1865, which is roughly the time around when Allahabadi started writing his satirical poetry regarding Western civilisation.
15 One can also see that Allahabadi not only sees Islam as a religion but also as a tradition embodied in figures such as al-Ghazzali and Sa’di, and it is how the usage of the terms Islam and tradition should be understood in the article.
16 Gandhi, Eight Lives Matter, p. 67.
17 Although he was a judge in a colonial institution, Allahabadi’s influence did not rest on those legal-rational foundations. As we will see, he was very critical of the modern legal-rational authority of the time.
18 Daryabadi, Abdul Majid, Khutut-i-Mashahir in Abdul Majid Daryabadi, ed., (Lucknow: Nasim Book Depot, 1969), p. 34.
19 Ibid.
20 Nawab Muhammad Ismail Khan was the President of United Provinces Muslim League and is considered one of the founding fathers of Pakistan.
21 Daryabadi, Khutut-i-Mashhir, p. 35.
22 Gandhi, Eight Lives Matter, p. 67.
23 Nu’mani, Shibli. Ilm al-Kalam (Āzamgarh: Matb’a Ma’arif, 1903).
24 Nu’mani, Shibli. al-Mamoon (Lahore: Karimi Press, n.d).
25 Nu’mani, Shibli. al-Farooq: Life of Omar the Great, the Second Caliph of Islam (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1939)
26 Allahabadi, Akbar. Kulliyat-i-Akbar (New Delhi, 2011), p. 114.
27 Nu’mani, Shibli. Al-Kalam (Azamgarh: Dar-ul-musannifin Shibli Academy, 2016).
28 Ibid., pp. 21-31.
29 Nu’mani, Al-Kalam.
30 Azad, Abul Kalam. Qur’an Tarjuman’ul Qur’an: Volume 1 (Lahore, n.d), pp. 45-52.
31 Ibid., pp. 45-7.
32 Ibid., pp. 45-6.
33 Ibid
34 Ibid., p. 47.
35 Ibid., p. 52.
36 Ibid., p. 47.
37 Ibid., p. 40.
38 Faruqi, Akbar Allahabadi, p. 4.
39 Faruqi, Akbar Allahabadi.
40 Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr.
41 The Gagging Act was in force from 1857 to 1878 to quell the criticism of the British Empire in India, but the Vernacular Press Act of 1978 was especially oriented towards the “Oriental Languages” and penalised the criticism of the British government in India in “Oriental languages.”
42 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 32.
43 Ibid., p. 253.
44 This shows that Allahabadi not only saw Islam as a religion but also as a tradition
embodied in the Islamic figures such as Sa’di.
45 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 340.
46 I must clarify beforehand that Allahabadi never critiqued modernity systematically.
My intellectual pursuit makes me relate to and tease his answer from his poetry
and present it in the form of a systematic argument.
47 Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr Akbar Allahabadi, pp. 19-23. Three major changes that
colonial rule fostered was the replacement of the traditional educational structure
after Macaulay’s reforms, the replacement of the Shariah legal structure with the
modern English legal structure, and the replacement of the hand-loomed textile
with the mechanically loomed textile imported from Britain.
48 Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr Akbar Allahabadi, pp. 19-21.
49 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 233.
50 Ibid.
51 Ibid., p. 253.
52 Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr Akbar, p. 102. See also pp. 102-04.
53 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 255.
54 Ahmad, Syed. Writings and speeches of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (Bombay: Nachiketa
Publications Limited, 1972), p. 94.
55 Ahmad. Writings and speeches of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, 115.
56 Ibid. See also 198.
57 Ibid., p. 113.
58 Ibid., p. 5.
59 See Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2012), 112-13.
60 Ibid
61 Masalihat or Maslaha is a theological concept in Islamic jurisprudence and discourse
that seeks to know and decide on a matter that does not have any direct-specific
reference in the Qur’an and Hadith. Masalihat-i-waqt is slightly different from
simply Masalihat; it is deciding on matters with respect to time and space in the
light of scripture in order to benefit humanity.
62 Zaman, Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age, p. 113.
63 Zaman, Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age, p. 115.
64 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 36.
65 Ibid., p. 238.
66 Ibid., p. 188.
67 Ibid., p. 365.
68 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 417.
69 Ibid., p. 393.
70 Later, Wittgenstein attacked Cartesian doubt on the same point and questioned
the (logical) necessity of doubting if there is no need. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. On
Certainty (Oxford, 1969), p. 41.
71 Deobandis and Barelvis, two major sects of South Asian Islam, engaged in an intense
polemic on the matter of boundaries and the normativity of Islam. See Tareen,
SherAli. Defending Muhammad in modernity (Notre Dame, 2020.
72 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 151.
73 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 87.
74 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 13.
75 Ibid., p. 408 and 502.
76 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 390.
77 Ibid., p. 365.
78 The word used by Allahabadi is ishq which literally translates to love, albeit that
is also translated/translatable to passion owing to the feature of love turning to
passion. Hence, I will use love and passion accordingly.
79 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 9 and 361.
80 Chittick, Divine and Human love in Islam, pp. 171-2.
81 Chittick. William C. The Heart of Islamic Philosophy: The quest for Self-Knowledge in the
teachings of Afdal al- din Kashani (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 41.
82 See Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr Akbar Allahabadi, p. 25.
83 Ibid.
84 By this position, Allahabadi, at once, established himself in the tradition of al-Ghazzali
whom he refers as the representative of Islamic tradition.
85 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 318. The invention of the telescope also signifies
the power of human intellect; thus, here, he also points toward the limit of intellect.
This echoes al-Ghazzali’s view of the relation between God and intellect as he said,
“Praise be to the God, alone in His majesty and might, and unique in His sublimity
and His everlastingness, who clips the wings of intellect well short of the glow of His
glory, and who makes the way of knowing Him pass through the inability to know
Him.” See Imam al-Ghazzali. The Ninety Nine Beautiful Names of Allah (Cambridge:
Islamic Texts Society, 2007), p. 1.
86 It is very possible that science in his times meant empiricism and that is the reason
he takes the telescope as representative of science which is an instrument to see
things. Shibli Nu’mani also critiques empiricism in Jadid Ilm al-Kalam.
87 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 150.
88 Ibid., p. 164.
89 Ibid., p. 18.
90 Ibid., p. 3.
91 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 403.
92 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 156.
93 W. Pritchett, Frances Nets of Awareness: Urdu Poetry and its Critics (London: University of California Press, 1994), pp. 106-23.
94 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, pp. 181-82.
95 Ibid., p. 182.
96 Ibid.
97 Ibid., p. 230. This attests to Fanon’s famous argument in his Black Skin White Masks that colonised inevitably reject his/her customs/traditions and tries to be like the coloniser. See Franz Fanon, Black Skin White Masks (London: Pluto Press, 2008).
98 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 182.
99 Ibid.
100 Ibid.
101 Ibid., p. 407.
102 Ibid., p. 405.
103 Dhulipalia, Venkat. Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India (Delhi: Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 355.
104 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 291.
105 Allahabadi wrote in a period when the memories of the Mughal rule were fresh, and to critique the modern political system was simply to restore the earlier system rather than advocate of some kind of modern Islamic state, which became a fashion in the 20th century.
106 It should be recognized that here the word philosophy has been used pejoratively. Also, several instances show that Allahabadi does not regard philosophy in high esteem. He declares elsewhere, “We call philosophy the cause of depravity.” See Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, pp. 81, 196.
107 Ibid., p. 315.
108 Ibid., p. 405.
109 I consciously chose the word lawmaking over legislating since legislation typically deals with creating and enacting laws in a legislative assembly, while lawmaking is the broader word and is not ordinarily restrained to any institutional setting.
110 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 363.
111 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 281.
112 Hallaq, Wael B. Sharia: Theory, Practice, Transformation (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2009), pp. 3-4.
113 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 312.
114 Ibid.
115 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 348. Following Allahabadi, whom Iqbal called his
teacher (Gandhi, Eight Lives, p. 67), had also said the same, “Community is from
religion, if there is no religion, there is no community.” See Iqbal, Muhammad.
Kulliyat-i-Iqbal (Lahore: Iqbal Academy, 2018), p. 229)
116 Ibid.
117 Akeel Bilgrami, Secularism, Identity and Enchantment (London: Harvard University
Press, 2014), pp. 217-40.
118 Ibid.
119
1 Case, Margaret H. The Social and Political Satire of Akbar Allahabadi. Mahfil (1964), 1(4), p. 11; Rajmohan Gandhi says that in the 1900s, Muslims of India were under the influence of three people. One Among them was Akbar Allahabadi, the two others being Shibli Nu’mani and Maulana Azad (Gandhi, Rajmohan. Eight Lives, A study of Hindu-Muslim encounter (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), p. 67).
2 Husain. Iqbal. Akbar Allahabadi and National Politics, Social Scientist (1988), 16(5), p. 29.
3 Ibid
4 Ibid
5 Ibid
6 Case, The Social and Political Satire of Akbar Allahabadi, p. 29.
7 Ibid
8 Ibid
9 Ibid
10 Ibid
11 Faruqi. Shamsur Rahman. Akbar Allahabadi: Nai Tehzibi Siyasat aur Badalte huye Aqdar, (New Delhi: Zakir Hussain Yadgar Khutba, 2002), p. 17.
12 Daryabadi, Abdul Majid. Zikr wa Fikr Akbar Allahabadi (Uttar Pradesh: Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad Memorial Committee, 1951), pp. 19-23.
13 The concept of modernity in Urdu is referred to through numerous words. Although I am unable to provide an exhaustive list since the meaning of the word, at times, also depends upon its usage in the sentence, I will point out some prominent/common words that refer to modernity. Jadidiyat and nayapan mean modernity. Simply Jadid or Naya means modern. Nai roshni, Tehzib or Nai Tehzib (depending upon the context) refer to modern civilisation, while Maghrib or Maghribi tehzib, which literally means West or Western civilisation, also refer to modernity.
14 Allahabadi could also be among the first thinkers in the Muslim world who engaged critically with Western civilisation. The Young Ottomans group that reacted against the modernist Tanzimat reforms was formed in 1865, which is roughly the time around when Allahabadi started writing his satirical poetry regarding Western civilisation.
15 One can also see that Allahabadi not only sees Islam as a religion but also as a tradition embodied in figures such as al-Ghazzali and Sa’di, and it is how the usage of the terms Islam and tradition should be understood in the article.
16 Gandhi, Eight Lives Matter, p. 67.
17 Although he was a judge in a colonial institution, Allahabadi’s influence did not rest on those legal-rational foundations. As we will see, he was very critical of the modern legal-rational authority of the time.
18 Daryabadi, Abdul Majid, Khutut-i-Mashahir in Abdul Majid Daryabadi, ed., (Lucknow: Nasim Book Depot, 1969), p. 34.
19 Ibid.
20 Nawab Muhammad Ismail Khan was the President of United Provinces Muslim League and is considered one of the founding fathers of Pakistan.
21 Daryabadi, Khutut-i-Mashhir, p. 35.
22 Gandhi, Eight Lives Matter, p. 67.
23 Nu’mani, Shibli. Ilm al-Kalam (Āzamgarh: Matb’a Ma’arif, 1903).
24 Nu’mani, Shibli. al-Mamoon (Lahore: Karimi Press, n.d).
25 Nu’mani, Shibli. al-Farooq: Life of Omar the Great, the Second Caliph of Islam (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1939)
26 Allahabadi, Akbar. Kulliyat-i-Akbar (New Delhi, 2011), p. 114.
27 Nu’mani, Shibli. Al-Kalam (Azamgarh: Dar-ul-musannifin Shibli Academy, 2016).
28 Ibid., pp. 21-31.
29 Nu’mani, Al-Kalam.
30 Azad, Abul Kalam. Qur’an Tarjuman’ul Qur’an: Volume 1 (Lahore, n.d), pp. 45-52.
31 Ibid., pp. 45-7.
32 Ibid., pp. 45-6.
33 Ibid
34 Ibid., p. 47.
35 Ibid., p. 52.
36 Ibid., p. 47.
37 Ibid., p. 40.
38 Faruqi, Akbar Allahabadi, p. 4.
39 Faruqi, Akbar Allahabadi.
40 Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr.
41 The Gagging Act was in force from 1857 to 1878 to quell the criticism of the British Empire in India, but the Vernacular Press Act of 1978 was especially oriented towards the “Oriental Languages” and penalised the criticism of the British government in India in “Oriental languages.”
42 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 32.
43 Ibid., p. 253.
44 This shows that Allahabadi not only saw Islam as a religion but also as a tradition
embodied in the Islamic figures such as Sa’di.
45 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 340.
46 I must clarify beforehand that Allahabadi never critiqued modernity systematically.
My intellectual pursuit makes me relate to and tease his answer from his poetry
and present it in the form of a systematic argument.
47 Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr Akbar Allahabadi, pp. 19-23. Three major changes that
colonial rule fostered was the replacement of the traditional educational structure
after Macaulay’s reforms, the replacement of the Shariah legal structure with the
modern English legal structure, and the replacement of the hand-loomed textile
with the mechanically loomed textile imported from Britain.
48 Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr Akbar Allahabadi, pp. 19-21.
49 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 233.
50 Ibid.
51 Ibid., p. 253.
52 Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr Akbar, p. 102. See also pp. 102-04.
53 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 255.
54 Ahmad, Syed. Writings and speeches of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (Bombay: Nachiketa
Publications Limited, 1972), p. 94.
55 Ahmad. Writings and speeches of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, 115.
56 Ibid. See also 198.
57 Ibid., p. 113.
58 Ibid., p. 5.
59 See Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2012), 112-13.
60 Ibid
61 Masalihat or Maslaha is a theological concept in Islamic jurisprudence and discourse
that seeks to know and decide on a matter that does not have any direct-specific
reference in the Qur’an and Hadith. Masalihat-i-waqt is slightly different from
simply Masalihat; it is deciding on matters with respect to time and space in the
light of scripture in order to benefit humanity.
62 Zaman, Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age, p. 113.
63 Zaman, Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age, p. 115.
64 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 36.
65 Ibid., p. 238.
66 Ibid., p. 188.
67 Ibid., p. 365.
68 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 417.
69 Ibid., p. 393.
70 Later, Wittgenstein attacked Cartesian doubt on the same point and questioned
the (logical) necessity of doubting if there is no need. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. On
Certainty (Oxford, 1969), p. 41.
71 Deobandis and Barelvis, two major sects of South Asian Islam, engaged in an intense
polemic on the matter of boundaries and the normativity of Islam. See Tareen,
SherAli. Defending Muhammad in modernity (Notre Dame, 2020.
72 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 151.
73 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 87.
74 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 13.
75 Ibid., p. 408 and 502.
76 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 390.
77 Ibid., p. 365.
78 The word used by Allahabadi is ishq which literally translates to love, albeit that
is also translated/translatable to passion owing to the feature of love turning to
passion. Hence, I will use love and passion accordingly.
79 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 9 and 361.
80 Chittick, Divine and Human love in Islam, pp. 171-2.
81 Chittick. William C. The Heart of Islamic Philosophy: The quest for Self-Knowledge in the
teachings of Afdal al- din Kashani (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 41.
82 See Daryabadi, Zikr wa Fikr Akbar Allahabadi, p. 25.
83 Ibid.
84 By this position, Allahabadi, at once, established himself in the tradition of al-Ghazzali
whom he refers as the representative of Islamic tradition.
85 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 318. The invention of the telescope also signifies
the power of human intellect; thus, here, he also points toward the limit of intellect.
This echoes al-Ghazzali’s view of the relation between God and intellect as he said,
“Praise be to the God, alone in His majesty and might, and unique in His sublimity
and His everlastingness, who clips the wings of intellect well short of the glow of His
glory, and who makes the way of knowing Him pass through the inability to know
Him.” See Imam al-Ghazzali. The Ninety Nine Beautiful Names of Allah (Cambridge:
Islamic Texts Society, 2007), p. 1.
86 It is very possible that science in his times meant empiricism and that is the reason
he takes the telescope as representative of science which is an instrument to see
things. Shibli Nu’mani also critiques empiricism in Jadid Ilm al-Kalam.
87 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 150.
88 Ibid., p. 164.
89 Ibid., p. 18.
90 Ibid., p. 3.
91 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 403.
92 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 156.
93 W. Pritchett, Frances Nets of Awareness: Urdu Poetry and its Critics (London: University of California Press, 1994), pp. 106-23.
94 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, pp. 181-82.
95 Ibid., p. 182.
96 Ibid.
97 Ibid., p. 230. This attests to Fanon’s famous argument in his Black Skin White Masks that colonised inevitably reject his/her customs/traditions and tries to be like the coloniser. See Franz Fanon, Black Skin White Masks (London: Pluto Press, 2008).
98 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 182.
99 Ibid.
100 Ibid.
101 Ibid., p. 407.
102 Ibid., p. 405.
103 Dhulipalia, Venkat. Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India (Delhi: Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 355.
104 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 291.
105 Allahabadi wrote in a period when the memories of the Mughal rule were fresh, and to critique the modern political system was simply to restore the earlier system rather than advocate of some kind of modern Islamic state, which became a fashion in the 20th century.
106 It should be recognized that here the word philosophy has been used pejoratively. Also, several instances show that Allahabadi does not regard philosophy in high esteem. He declares elsewhere, “We call philosophy the cause of depravity.” See Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, pp. 81, 196.
107 Ibid., p. 315.
108 Ibid., p. 405.
109 I consciously chose the word lawmaking over legislating since legislation typically deals with creating and enacting laws in a legislative assembly, while lawmaking is the broader word and is not ordinarily restrained to any institutional setting.
110 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 363.
111 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 281.
112 Hallaq, Wael B. Sharia: Theory, Practice, Transformation (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2009), pp. 3-4.
113 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 312.
114 Ibid.
115 Allahabadi, Kulliyat-i-Akbar, p. 348. Following Allahabadi, whom Iqbal called his
teacher (Gandhi, Eight Lives, p. 67), had also said the same, “Community is from
religion, if there is no religion, there is no community.” See Iqbal, Muhammad.
Kulliyat-i-Iqbal (Lahore: Iqbal Academy, 2018), p. 229)
116 Ibid.
117 Akeel Bilgrami, Secularism, Identity and Enchantment (London: Harvard University
Press, 2014), pp. 217-40.
118 Ibid.
119
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Dec 23, 2024
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Khan, S. R. (2024). Tackling Displacement: Akbar Allahabadi’s Islamic Critique of Modernity in the Colonial Subcontinent. American Journal of Islam and Society, 41(3-4), 157–182. https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v41i3-4.3168
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